Welcome back! In the previous article, we introduced the concept of ownership in Rust. It's Rust's unique way of guaranteeing memory safety without relying on a garbage collector. If you haven't seen the previous article, I recommend you do so to learn the basics of how memory works in Rust.
In this article, we'll cover other edge cases when passing memory across your program. We'll explore new features built into Rust to help you move memory in a safe and effective way. You'll learn about borrowing, references, and the infamous borrow checker. Let's go!
The Ownership Gotcha
In the last example from the previous article, we had a situation where we needed to use the numbers vector twice within the program. From our knowledge of ownership, we know Rust moves the variable to the first call to sum_numbers and deallocates it when the function returns. Using the variable a second time causes a compilation error. At this point, numbers has been deallocated and is uninitialized, thus Rust prevents us from accessing uninitialized memory and crashes the build.
fn sum_numbers(numbers: Vec<i8>) -> i8 { //takes ownership of numbers
let mut total = 0;
for num in numbers.iter() {
total += num;
}
return total;
} //function is out of scope. Thus, numbers is deallocated
fn main() {
let numbers = vec![3, 2, 1]; //allocates vector of numbers on heap
println!("{:?}", sum_numbers(numbers)); //numbers is moved to sum_numbers
println!("{:?}", sum_numbers(numbers)); //⚠️ numbers is already deallocated. Program does not compile.
}
Code block 1
Passing data allocated on the heap to a new scope, i.e function call, causes Rust to move that data into the scope. And Rust deallocates it when the scope exits to ensure memory is safely used. So what about using a variable more than once? My guess is you never had to think too much about this while writing other languages, but we aren't in Kansas anymore. The big question is, how do you reuse variables in Rust programs?
One way to get around this quirk of Rust is creating clones of variables. In the example below (Code block 2), we create a clone of numbers that is then moved and deallocated after the first call to set_numbers returns. Then, the original variable is consumed in the second call. Compiling this program works as expected, but we needed two copies of numbers to pull it off. That's pretty inefficient.
fn sum_numbers(numbers: Vec<i8>) -> i8 {
let mut total = 0;
for num in numbers.iter() {
total += num;
}
return total;
}
fn main() {
let numbers = vec![3, 2, 1];
println!("{:?}", sum_numbers(numbers.clone())); //a clone of numbers is moved to sum_numbers
println!("{:?}", sum_numbers(numbers)); //then we can re-use numbers
}
Code block 2
This workaround has some glaring limitations. Sometimes, the variable in question may be large, and it's unfeasible to create copies. Is there a better way to reuse data in Rust programs? Good news, there is!
Borrowing & References
To help you share data efficiently, Rust provides a pair of features called borrowing and references. They completely eliminate the need to rely on copies and are easy to use. These concepts may be familiar to you if you've programmed in C or C++, but if not, we'll take a look at it together.
References in Rust allows you to access a variable without affecting its ownership. It's like a pointer that can be followed to access the data stored at the address of the variable, which may be owned by a completely different scope. References in Rust differ from C pointers in that it's guaranteed to point only to valid values, i.e. no null pointers. Thus are no undefined behaviors when using references in Rust.
References come in two flavors. There are shared references and mutable references. Shared references allow you to read the value of its referent without modifying it. You can have as many shared references to a variable as you like, as all references point to the same data in memory. To illustrate, a person may be called father by his child, husband by his wife, teacher at work, and still have a name like Confidence. The titles; father, husband, teacher and Confidence all refer to the same person.
Going back to the example we've been considering, we can use shared references to pass data more effectively. As you see below (Code block 3), copy has been removed and replaced with a shared reference to numbers written as &numbers, where & is the reference operator. Also, you'll notice the function argument has been updated to accept references of type &Vec<i8>. Within the context of the sum_numbers function, numbers is said to be borrowed, and the program compiles without a hitch.
fn sum_numbers(numbers: &Vec<i8>) -> i8 { //accepts a shared ref of type &Vec<i8>
let mut total = 0;
for num in numbers.iter() {
total += num;
}
return total;
}
fn main() {
let numbers = vec![3, 2, 1];
println!("{:?}", sum_numbers(&numbers)); //passes a shared ref to sum_numbers
println!("{:?}", sum_numbers(&numbers)); //multiple shared refs can be used
}
Code block 3
You'll notice we didn't explicitly dereference numbers within the sum_numbers function. Why is that? In Rust, references are frequently used, thus, variables are implicitly dereferenced when their methods are accessed with the dot (.) operator. numbers was implicitly dereferenced with the call to .iter() method. You could also be more explicit by using the dereferencing operator * as shown below, but most Rust programmers tend not to.
fn sum_numbers(numbers: &Vec<i8>) -> i8 { //accepts a shared ref of type &Vec<i8>
let mut total = 0;
for num in (*numbers).iter() { //numbers ref explicitly dereferenced
total += num;
}
return total;
}
fn main() {
let numbers = vec![3, 2, 1];
println!("{:?}", sum_numbers(&numbers)); //passes a shared ref to sum_numbers
println!("{:?}", sum_numbers(&numbers)); //multiple shared refs can be used
}
Code block 4
It's also good to know that shared references are immutable. So long there's a shared reference to a variable, no one (not even its owner) can change its value, i.e. no one can modify numbers when sum_numbers is working on it. Rust uses this rule enforced by the borrow checker to ensure memory safety. Thus, the following program won't compile, because numbers is borrowed using an immutable reference in sum_numbers.
fn sum_numbers(numbers: &Vec<i8>) -> i8 { //accepts a shared ref of type &Vec<i8>
numbers.push(4); //⚠️ mutating a shared ref. Program doesn't compile
let mut total = 0;
for num in numbers.iter() {
total += num;
}
return total;
}
fn main() {
let mut numbers = vec![3, 2, 1];
println!("{:?}", sum_numbers(&numbers)); //passes a shared ref to sum_numbers
println!("{:?}", sum_numbers(&numbers)); //multiple shared refs can be used
}
Code block 5
All fine and good. Now, you must be curious about mutating the values a reference points to, as it's often necessary while building real applications. In other words, how do you mutate numbers while it's borrowed within sum_numbers? Don't worry, Rust got you.
Mutable References
Mutable references not only allow you to read its referent's value but also mutate it. But there's a catch. You can't have any other references to the variable when a mutable reference exists. In other words, you can have only one mutable reference or many shared reference to a value at any given moment. This is called the ‘multiple readers or single writer rule'. It might seem limiting at first, but actually covers all use cases and helps you write bug free programs. This rule is also enforced by the borrow checker.
A mutable reference is denoted by the expression &mut X, X being the referent variable. Fixing the example in Code block 5 to use mutable references involves updating the reference type that is used, and the function signature of sum_numbers. While Rust only allows the use of one mutable reference at a time, there's nothing stopping us from creating another mutable reference after the first goes out of scope.
fn sum_numbers(numbers: &mut Vec<i8>) -> i8 { //accepts a mutable ref
numbers.push(4); //program now compiles
let mut total = 0;
for num in numbers.iter() {
total += num;
}
return total;
}
fn main() {
let mut numbers = vec![3, 2, 1];
println!("{:?}", sum_numbers(&mut numbers)); //passes a mutable ref to sum_numbers
println!("{:?}", sum_numbers(&mut numbers)); //another mutable ref can be created after the first is consumed
}
Code block 6
A key takeaway here is you can't both use mutable and shared references at the same time in your program. You have to decide upfront what path you'll choose, and Rust guarantees there'll be no memory leaks provided your program compiles. My advice is not to think too much about what kind of reference to use, as it naturally comes when needed.
Conclusion
There's still a lot to learn about borrowing and references, but the best way to learn is by doing. So practice as you go and you'll be alright. In the next article, we'll learn about lifetimes and how they affect references in Rust. If you'd love to learn more about Rust, follow me on Twitter. Awesome, I'll see you in the next one. Cheers!
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